Linguistics Plus Essay Example for Free

Linguistics Plus EssayA. The Backround Of Study In the preceding chapters , philology has been discussed in general as the scientific study of phrases. According to this impression, linguistic is a theoritical, abstract, academic subject. It describes the nature of human linguistic communication activity in scientific terms and linguistics be see to belong to opposite schools of thought and to hold competing linguistic theories. We hire seen what this view of linguistics has to contribute to spoken communication teaching. There is an otherwise view of linguistics which cuts across all schools of linguistic thought and is common ground among all linguistics. In this view,linguistics is abody of attitudes and knowledge which result from the study of things like nature of oral communication as a communicative, social activity run-in in the individual , his speech mechanism and mental capacities for expression speech communication in society varieties of language , th e rigorous description of particular languages , etc . This common ground the linguistics is immediately relevant to whole field of language teaching . B. The Formulation Of Study ground on the backrgound of study that explained, we formulate some problems that will be explained in this discussion, there ar 1. What is the meaning of psycholinguistics? 2. What is language encyclopaedism? 3. is the first language erudition the same as first language acuisition? 4. What is the interference from L1 in acquirement L2? C. The Perpose Of Writing To obtain a foc physical exercised, it is necessary to tell the purpose of this stem. The purposes of writing this paper atomic number 18 1. Make the readers know about Psycholinguistic , language acquisition , First and gage language, Motivation in L2 accomplishment , and Language Interference. 2. Knowing the different between First and Secong Language D. Research Of Methodology.There ar many methods that can be used in educational res earch, such as historic method, descriptive method, experimental method etc. We use the description method in order to meet the purpose of the research. CHAPTER 2 LINGUISTIC PLUS (CHAPTER 6 IN BOOK) A. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS PSIKOLINGUISTIK As its name suggests, psycholinguistics is a field study that combines psychology and linguistics. The term itself was coined in 1951. Though the study had been going on eveb in the 19th century in the form of the study of language development. It includes a great variety of topics that be of interest to language teachers.Some of these are how language is regulate and produced by language user our memory span of language pauperization in language learning how L1 Habits interface with L2 learning billingualism and mental development the use of language in concept formation and language acquistion or development. Seperti namanya, psikolinguistik adenosine deaminaselah studi lapangan yang menggabungkan psikologi dan linguistik. Istilah itu sendi ri diciptakan pada tahun 1951. Meskipun penelitian telah terjadi bahkan pada abad kesembilan belas dalam bentuk studi perkembangan bahasa.Ini mencakup berbagai macam topik yang menarik bagi guru bahasa. Beberapa di antaranya adalah bagaimana bahasa diterima dan dihasilkan oleh pengguna bahasa memori kita rentang bahasa motivasi dalam belajar bahasa bagaimana Kebiasaan L1 antarmuka dengan pembelajaran belajar L2 dan perkembangan mental penggunaan bahasa dalam pembentukan konsep, dan akuisisi bahasa atau pembangunan. B. LANGUAGE ACQUISTION TRANSISI BAHASA The last mentioned topic is currently being much investigated by TG grammarians because their linguistic opening makes such on the language producing ability of human beings.It is therefore of interest to them, as it is to teachers, to find out how language is acquired. ( it may be say at this point that they make a distinction between language acquisition or development and language learning . The first language or mother tongue is acquired, while the stand by language is learned. ) Topik terakhir yang disebutkan saat ini sedang diselidiki oleh banyak tatabahasawan tradisional grammar karena teori linguistik mereka membuatnya seperti bahasa dapat menghasilkan kemampuan manusia.Oleh karena itu sangat menarik bagi mereka, terutama untuk guru, untuk mengetahui bagaimana bahasa diperoleh. (Mungkin terdapat pada bahasan ini bahwa mereka membuat perbedaan antara penguasaan bahasa atau pengembangan dan pembelajaran bahasa asli atau bahasa ibu yang langsung diperoleh, sedangkan bahasa asing harus dipelajari. ) There are two theories of language acquisition the cognitive-code learning possibleness f-voured by the transformational generative linguists and the habit-formation theory of the structural linguists.The habit-formation theory is in effect the aplication of learning theory to language acquisition. It involves conditioning and reinforcement to shape a response until it is like the model . An congressman m at make the process clear. An infant may accidentally produce what sound like mama ,on his babbling and the mother reinforces this by smiling , kissing, cling to him.. This encourages him to produce the sounds again and the nearer they approach the word mama , the more(prenominal) pleasure the mother shows until the tyke learns to say the word correctly every prison term with reference to her.The whole process is described as shaping the response and strengthenceing it by selective reinforcement. The response is encouraged to recur or strengthen by the smile or nod , or whatever is reinforcing to the child. Repeated occurences of the response from habit. Imitation plays as important a role as repeating in the theory. The child imitates the adults he hears and is again reinforced for correct responses. This theory of language acquisition is based on the view that language is demeanor that results from habits and habits are formed by work and repetion.Ada dua teori akuisisi b ahasa teori belajar kode kognitif mempelajari teori f-voured oleh ahli bahasa transformasi generatif linguistik dan teori-kebiasaan hasil pembentukan ahli bahasa struktural. Teori formasi kebiasaan yang pada kenyataannya aplikasi dari teori belajar akuisisi bahasa. Ini melibatkan pengkondisian dan penguatan untuk membentuk respon sampai seperti model atau contoh yang ada, misalnya sebuah kaset untuk membuatnya sebagai contoh. Contoh lain adalah Bayi yang dapat menghasilkan sebuah kata yang terdengar seperti mama, saat mengoceh dan ibunya memperkuat ini dengan memberikan senyuman, mencium,atau memeluk dia .Hal ini dapat mendorong dia untuk menghasilkan suara lagi dan semakin dekat dengan kata mama yang sebenarnya, respon senang yang ditunjukan ibunya itu terus ditunjukan hinngga anak belajar mengucapkan kata kata dengan. Seluruh proses yang digambarkan sebagai pembentuk respon dan penguatan dengan penguatan selektif. Respon yang didorong untuk muncul kembali atau diperkuat oleh senyu m atau anggukan, atau apapun yang dapat memperkuat kepada anak untuk melakukan sesuatu. Kejadian yang diulang dari respon dan dari kebiasaan.Permainan meniru sama penting peranannya sebagai teori. Anak meniru orang dewasa, ia mendengar lagi dan diperkuat oleh respon yang diberikan orang disekitarnya. Teori pemerolehan bahasa didasarkan pada pandangan bahwa bahasa adalah perilaku yang dihasilkan dari kebiasaan dan kebiasaan yang dibentuk oleh praktek dan pengulangan. The cognitive-code learning theory states that language is overtop-governed behaviour and that in language acquisition, the infant learns the set of rules that will produce the sentences of the language. How does he arrive at the set of rules?TG grammarians say human beings are born with a language acquisition device (LAD), which changes the child to form a series of hypotheses about the language which he hears , as he grows up. At each stage in his language development he tests his hypothesis (the set of rules he has formulated so far) against what he hears ( the language data) and revises it accordingly , until he reaches adult competence. But what does the LAD brood of? The theory is that it consists of those linguistic universals to be run aground the deep, deep structure of all languages.There is no agreement or certainty yet about what these universals are apart from thefact that they must be certain abstract syntactic and semantic categories and relationships, though there may be a neurophysiological rear end in the brain. Examples of such relationships which have been postulated are those between noun and verb as in case grammar that between subject and predicate and catagories like NP , VP , Adv.These universals are express to be present in the structure of all languages but each language realises them in different way in surface structure and language learning consists in learning how it is done in that particular language .The linguists are making cross-cultural studies of language acquisition in order to get evidence of linguistic universals, but the data collected so far are still sketchy though certain features in language bulge in about the same sequence and at about the same age all over the world. Teori Kode kognitif belajar menyatakan bahwa bahasa adalah aturan aturan perilaku dan bahwa dalam akuisisi bahasa, bayi mempelajari seperangkat aturan yang akan menghasilkan kalimat bahasa. Bagaimana ia bisa sampai pada seperangkat aturan?Tatabahasawan TG mengatakan manusia dilahirkan dengan perangkat penguasaan bahasa (LAD), yang memungkinkan anak untuk membentuk serangkaian hipotesis tentang bahasa yang ia dengar, saat ia tumbuh. Pada setiap tahap dalam perkembangan bahasa, ia menguji hipotesis tersebut (seperangkat aturan yang telah dirumuskan sejauh ini) terhadap apa yang ia dengar (data bahasa) dan merevisi (menerjemahkan artinya), sampai ia mencapai kompetensi dewasa. Tapi apa saja penyusun LAD itu ?Tidak ada kesepakatan atau kepastian tentang apa saja penyusun LAD tersebut dan tak ada yang terlepas dari kenyataan bahwa orang orang universal linguistik harus memastikan kategori sintaksis dan semantik abstrak, meskipun mungkin ada dasar neurofisiologi di otak. Contoh hubungan tersebut yang telah disebutkan adalah antara nomina dan verba seperti dalam tata bahasa, bahwa antara subjek dan predikat, dan kategori seperti NP, VP, Adv. Itu dikatakan terdapat dalam struktur dari semua bahasa, tetapi setiap bahasa menempatkan mereka dengan cara yang berbeda dalam struktur permukaan dan pembelajaran tertentu.Para ahli bahasa membuat studi lintas-budaya , untuk mendapatkan bukti yang umum tentang linguistik, tetapi data yang dikumpulkan sejauh ini masih samar meskipun fitur tertentu dalam bahasa muncul di sekitar urutan yang sama dan pada sekitar usia yang sama di seluruh dunia . The teacher of second language needs to take of these two theories of language acquisition since they have attached test to schools of thought on language teachin g. If language acquisition is a matter of habit formation, then the language teacher must concentrate on performance.Let the pupils imitate a model and give them plenty of pattern drill to establish habits of behaviour. Reinforce them gor correct responses and elimitate wrong responses by a escape of reinforcement. Let them learn inductively, inferring the rules for themselves after much practice rather than receiving the rules for explanations at the begining. If, on the other hand, language acquisition is a matter of learning a code, then the language teacher must ensure that the pupils internalise the rules yhat will enable them to produce sentences.Explanations of the sentences structures and explicit knowledge of the rules must then play a larger rule in language teaching. Para guru bahasa kedua perlu mengambil dari kedua teori pemerolehan bahasa karena mereka telah melahirkan aliran pemikiran pengajaran bahasa. Jika akuisisi bahasa adalah masalah pembentukan kebiasaan, maka g uru bahasa harus berkonsentrasi pada kinerja. Biarkan siswa meniru model dan memberi mereka banyak bor pola untuk membangun kebiasaan perilaku. Memperkuat mereka tanggapan gor benar dan elimitate tanggapan yang salah oleh kurangnya penguatan.Biarkan mereka belajar induktif, menyimpulkan aturan untuk diri mereka sendiri setelah banyak latihan daripada menerima aturan untuk penjelasan di awal. Jika, di sisi lain, penguasaan bahasa adalah masalah belajar kode, maka guru bahasa harus memastikan bahwa siswa menginternalisasi yhat aturan akan memungkinkan mereka untuk menghasilkan kalimat. Penjelasan dari struktur kalimat dan pengetahuan eksplisit aturan kemudian harus memainkan aturan yang lebih besar dalam pengajaranbahasa. How is the language teacher to decide between the two theories of language learning? What well-formed theory is most useful to language teachers?To answer these questions, i would just like to refer the reader to the paper by J. B Carroll that i cited in chapter 1. In that paper he says. it would be pretentious to try to express an opinion on which of the various grammatical theories is most vailed. Different grammatical theories have somewhat different goals in general. I believe that language teacher should evaluate grammatical theories in terms of the degree to which they comform to the linguistic habits that actually enable a language user to converse and understand the language. Bagaimana guru bahasa untuk memutuskan antara dua teori pembelajaran bahasa?Apa teori tata bahasa yang paling berguna untuk guru bahasa? Untuk menjawab pertanyaan ini, saya hanya ingin merujuk pembaca untuk kertas oleh JB Carroll yang saya dikutip dalam bab 1. Dalam kertas yang katanya. Itu akan sok mencoba untuk mengekspresikan pendapat yang dari teori gramatikal berbagai paling vailed. Teori tata bahasa yang berbeda memiliki tujuan yang agak berbeda secara umum. Saya percaya bahwa guru bahasa harus mengevaluasi teori tata bahasa dalam hal sejauh mana mereka co mform ke kebiasaan linguistik yang benar-benar memungkinkan pengguna bahasa untuk berbicara dan mengerti bahasa .As for theories of language learning. Carroll suggest a synthesis of the two. I am inclined to agree with him that neither a pure audiolingual habit theory nor a pure cognitive-code learning theory can be comprehensive and correct. severally of the theories contains elements of truth, and each therefore to some degree wrong or incomplete. We need to extract what is valuable for each theory and put them together. Carroll calls the synthesis cognitive habit-formation theory. Adapun teori belajar bahasa. Carroll menyarankan sintesis dari dua.Saya cenderung setuju dengan dia bahwa baik murni kebiasaan teori audiolingual atau murni kognitif-kode teori belajar bisa tidak lengkap dan benar. Setiap teori mengandung unsur kebenaran, dan masing-masing karena itu untuk beberapa derajat yang salah atau tidak lengkap. Kita perlu untuk mengambil apa yang berharga bagi teori masing-mas ing dan menempatkan mereka bersama-sama. Carroll menyebut sintesis kognitif kebiasaan-formasi teori. The audiolingual habit theory is correct in that language behaviour is partly a matter habits.The audiolingual method with its emphasis on pattern practice and formations of habits fell out of favour because the theory made the wrong assumtions about that kinds of habits to form and how to form them. Instead of forming habits that have to do. For instance, with substituting words in sentences or with changing one kind of sentences into another. teacher sould form functional habits.The diffferent between the two is that the former takes no account of language ude in actual situations (where is the liaison for substitution for tables in real life outside the classroom?) while the latter does. For example, in teaching commands and requests, it is not enough to present the learners with statements to be changed into commands or requests.The stimulus is the sentence in the case. In formi ng fumctional habits the stimulus is the situations, the intentions and the listener. In situation A, if you need help you just shout help in situation B, you may say, please help me or could you channelize me? in situation C, you may say, would you mind helping me? and so on. Teori Kebiasaan audiolingual benar dalam perilaku bahasa adalah kebiasaan sebagian materi.Metode audiolingual dengan penekanan pada praktek pola dan formasi dari kebiasaan jatuh dari nikmat karena teori membuat assumtions salah tentang hal itu jenis kebiasaan untuk membentuk dan bagaimana membentuk mereka. Alih-alih membentuk kebiasaan yang harus dilakukan. Misalnya, dengan mengganti kata-kata dalam kalimat atau dengan mengubah satu jenis kalimat menjadi lain. Guru arwah membentuk kebiasaan fungsional.The diffferent antara keduanya adalah bahwa mantan tidak memperhitungkan bahasa ude dalam situasi yang sebenarnya (di mana merupakan kesempatan untuk substitusi untuk tabel dalam kehidupan nyata di luar kel as?)Sedangkan yang kedua tidak. Sebagai contoh, dalam mengajar perintah dan permintaan, itu tidak cukup untuk menyajikan peserta didik dengan pernyataan yang akan diubah menjadi perintah atau permintaan. Stimulus adalah kalimat dalam kasus ini. Dalam membentuk kebiasaan fumctional stimulus adalah situasi, maksud dan pendengar. Dalam situasi A, jika Anda memerlukan bantuan Anda hanya berteriak membantu , Dalam situasi B, Anda mungkin berkata, tolong bantu saya atau bisa Anda helm saya? , Dalam situasi C, Anda mungkin berkata, bisakah kau membantu saya dan sebagainya?.Carroll also points out that the audingual habit theory wrongly assumed that practice and repetion were crucial factors in the formation of habits. Although practice and repetition have certain roles to play, they are not crucial in learning. Succesive repetition of the same response is, in fact, generally the wrong way to stamp in a habit there are few kinds of learning where this is effective. Evocation of the response on a number of aperiodic, widely-spaced occasions, with interpolation of different material in the intervals, is a much more effective method has been insufficiently employed in pattern drills.Carroll juga menunjukkan bahwa teori kebiasaan audingual salah diasumsikan bahwa praktek dan pengulangan adalah faktor penting dalam pembentukan kebiasaan. Meskipun praktek dan pengulangan memiliki peran tertentu untuk bermain, mereka tidak penting dalam belajar. Pengulangan berturut dari respon yang sama, pada kenyataannya, umumnya cara yang salah untuk cap di kebiasaan, ada beberapa jenis belajar di mana ini efektif. Kebangkitan dari respon pada sejumlah aperiodik, luas-spasi kesempatan, dengan interpolasi dari bahan yang berbeda dalam interval, adalah metode yang jauh lebih efektif telah kurang digunakan dalam latihan pola.The element of truth in the cognitive-codelearning theory is that a knowledge of the facts and formal rules of the language can really be of help in guiding the learner to form the right language habits. However, knowledge of the rule alone is of on avail unless the learner is given opportunities to form the habits in the way suggested above. Forthermore, the facts of the language should be presented in a form easy to understand, and stamp down to the learners age and ability. Abstract rule should be illustrated with a number of concrete examples.Unsur kebenaran dalam teori kognitif-codelearning adalah bahwa pengetahuan tentang fakta-fakta dan aturan formal bahasa benar-benar dapat membantu dalam membimbing peserta didik untuk membentuk kebiasaan bahasa yang tepat. Namun, pengetahuan tentang aturan saja dari pada berhasil kecuali pelajar diberikan kesempatan untuk membentuk kebiasaan dalam cara yang disarankan di atas. Forthermore, fakta bahasa harus disajikan dalam bentuk yang mudah dimengerti, dan sesuai dengan usia peserta didik dan kemampuan. Aturan abstrak harus diilustrasikan dengan sejumlah contoh konkret.C. FIRST AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNI NG PEMBELAJARAN BAHASA PERTAMA DAN KEDUA A question often discussed with regard to second language learning is whether it is the same as first language acquisition. The answer depends on the stage at which the second language is learned. If it is learned at an early age before the first language is thoroughly mastered, or most simultaneously with the first language then second language learning parallels first language learning. If it is learned at a later stage in the formal school setting, there are several observable differences.First of all, the child is exposed to the first language all his waking hours while he probably hears the second language unless during the class hour. Secondly, there is a big difference in motivation. A child learning his first language is strongly motivated because his needs and wishes are satisfied by the use of language and his control of his environment and himself increases with his increasing mastery of his mother tongue. Not only this, but emot ional and social ties are created by his use of the first language. The second language seldom fulfils such function when it is learned as a subject in the curriculum.Thirdly, as the child learns the first language he is also learning the concepts, while in learning the second language he seldom has to form new concepts keep out where these are foreign to his own culture. Finally, the habits established in first language learning tend to inhabit and interfere with his learning of the second language. It is also claimed that there is a critical period for language acquisition which extends up to puberty. But according to Carroll the evidence for a critical period and decline in language acquisition ability during the middle school years is not strong, however, and even if there is some decline.I am not persuaded that one must stir to biology to explain it. (p. 109) Krashen has since confirmed Carrolls view. Suatu pertanyaan yang sering dibahas terkait dengan pembelajaran bahasa ke dua adalah apakah pembelajarannya sama dengan akuisisi bahasa pertama. Jawabannya tergantung pada tahap di mana bahasa kedua dipelajari. Jika dipelajari pada usia dini sebelum bahasa pertama benar-benar terkuasai, atau hampir bersamaan dengan bahasa pertama, maka pembelajaran bahasa kedua sejajar dengan pembelajar bahasa pertama. Jika dipelajari pada tahap berikutnya dalam bentuk sekolah formal, ada beberapa perbedaan yang diamati.Pertama-tama, anak terkena bahasa pertama selama dia terjaga sementara dia mungkin mendengar bahasa kedua hanya selama jam sekolah. Kedua, ada perbedaan besar dalam motivasi. Seorang anak belajar bahasa pertamanya sangat termotivasi karena kebutuhan dan keinginannya terpuaskan dengan manfaat bahasa dan kendali lingkungannya dan dirinya sendiri meningkat dengan meningkatnya penguasaan bahasa ibunya. Tidak hanya itu, tapi hubungan emosional dan sosial terciptaka oleh penggunaanya terhadap bahasa pertama. Bahasa kedua jarang memenuhi fungsi tersebut bila dipe lajari sebagai subjek dalam kurikulum.Ketiga, ketika anak belajar bahasa pertama dia juga belajar konsep, sedangkan dalam mempelajari bahasa kedua jarang ia harus membentuk konsep-konsep baru kecuali konsep-konsep itu asing bagi budayanya sendiri. Akhirnya, kebiasaan-kebiasaan pada pembelajaran bahasa pertama cenderung menghuni dan mengganggu pembelajaran bahasa kedua. Hal ini juga menyatakan bahwa ada periode kritis bagi penguasaan bahasa yang meluas sampai masa puber. Tetapi menurut Carroll bukti untuk periode kritis dan penurunan kemampuan akuisisi bahasa selama pertengahan masa sekolah tidak kuat, bagaimanapun, dan bahkan jika ada beberapa penurunan.Saya tidak yakin bahwa seseorang harus menarik biologi untuk menjelaskannya (hal. 109). Krashen sejak mengkonfirmasi pandangan Carroll. There is one respect in which learning a first language is similar to learning a second language it is in the process itself. Just as the young child makes generalisations and says foots or goed, so the Malay learner of English as a second language may over-generalise and say foot of the sky when he means the horizon. In second language learning there is also imitation and modelling, just as there is in first language learning.Ada suatu kecocokan dimana pembelajaran bahasa pertama mirip dengan belajar bahasa kedua yaitu dalam proses itu sendiri. Sama seperti anak muda yang membuat generalisasi dan mengatakan foots atau goed, begitu pula pelajar Melayu yang belajar Bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa kedua mungkin over-generalisasi dan mengatakan foots of the sky ketika ia bermaksud mengatakan the horizon. Dalam pembelajaran bahasa kedua ada juga imitasi dan modeling, seperti yang ada dalam pembelajaran bahasa pertama. D. MOTIVATION IN L2 LEARNING MOTIVASI DALAM PEMBELAJARAN L2It was mentioned above that there was a difference in motivation between first and second language learning. It is the wish of motivation that produces little or no difference in bookman performance in response to improved teaching methods or materials. This problem of motivation in second language learning has been studied and two kinds of motivation have been distinguished. One is called subservient motivation this is when the student learns the second language for instrumental purposes. For example, it may be a compulsory school subject or it may be required for post graduate work, for his career or for hold out abroad.There is no desire on his part to go beyond the language as a tool to fulfil rather limited purposes. The other kind of motivation is called integrative. In this case, the student learns the second language with the desire to identify himself with the native speakers and to enrich his life by contact with another culture. It was found that students with integrative motivation have greater success at learning the second language than those with merely instrumental motivation. Telah disebutkan di atas bahwa ada suatu perbedaan dalam motivasi antara belajar bahasa pertama dan kedua.Ini adalah kekurangan dari motivasi bahwa motivasi menghasilkan sedikit atau tidak adanya perbedaan terhadap prestasi siswa dalam menanggapi metode pengajaran atau materi. Masalah motivasi dalam belajar bahasa kedua ini telah dipelajari dan dua jenis motivasi telah dibedakan. Satu disebut motivasi instrumental yaitu ketika siswa belajar bahasa kedua untuk tujuan instrumental. Sebagai contoh, mungkin suatu subjek sekolah yang wajib atau mungkin diperlukan untuk tugas pasca sarjana, untuk karirnya atau untuk perjalanan ke luar negeri. Tidak adan keinginan pada bagiannya yang melampaui bahasa sebagai alat untuk memenuhi tujuan yang terbatas.Jenis lain dari motivasi disebut integratif. Dalam hal ini, siswa belajar bahasa kedua dengan keinginan untuk mengidentifikasi dirinya dengan penutur asli dan memperkaya hidupnya dengan kontak dengan budaya lain. Ditemukan bahwa siswa dengan motivasi integratif memiliki keberhasilan yang lebih besar dalam mempelajari bahasa kedua dibanding kan dengan motivasi instrumental. E. LANGUAGE treatment GANGGUAN BAHASA Another aspect of psycholinguistics that is directly relevant to second language teacher has been touched upon in discussing contrastive analysis. That is, the study of interference from L1 in learning L2.The theory is that in learning L1 certain habits of perceiving and performing have to be established and the old habits tend to interlude and interfere with the learning, so that the student may speak L2 with the intonation of his L1 or the word order of his L1, and so on. We noted in the last chapter that though such interference does occur, not all errors in L2 learning can be accounted for by interference from L1. L2 learning like L1 acquisition appears to proceed by stages when new bits of the language are imperfectly learned, giving rise to what has been called interlanguage.Aspek lain dari psikolinguistik yang secara langsung relevan dengan guru bahasa kedua telah disinggung dalam pembahasan analisis kon trastif. yaitu, the study of interference from L1 in learning L2. Teorinya adalah bahwa dalam belajar L1 kebiasaan dalam mengamati dan performing harus dibentuk dan kebiasaan lama cenderung selingan dan mengganggu pembelajaran, sehingga siswa berbicara L2 dengan intonasi L1-nya atau urutan kata L1-nya , dan seterusnya. Kami mencatat dalam bab terakhir bahwa meskipun gangguan tersebut tidak terjadi, tidak semua kesalahan dalam pembelajaran L2 dapat dipertanggungjawabkan oleh gangguan dari L1.pembelajaran L2 seperti akuisisi L1 muncul untuk melanjutkan secara bertahap ketika bit baru dari bahasa tidak dipelajari secara sempurna, sehingga menimbulkan apa yang disebut interlanguage. CHAPTER III CONGCLUTION From chapter 2 in this report , we make some point 1. Psycholinguistics is a field study that combines psychology and linguistics. The term itself was coined in 1951. Though the study had been going on eveb in the nineteenth century in the form of the study of language development.It includes a great variety of topics that are of interest to language teachers. 2. theory of language acquisition is based on the view that language is behaviour that results from habits and habits are formed by practice and repetion. 3. If the second is learned at an early age before the first language is thoroughly mastered, or almost simultaneously with the first language then second language learning parallels first language learning. If it is learned at a later stage in the formal school setting, there are several observable differences. different motivation. Emotional and social ties are created by his use of the first language. Meanwhile, The second language seldom fulfils such function when it is learned as a subject in the curriculum. When we Learn first language, we also learn the concepts, while in learning the second language we seldom has to form new concepts except where these are foreign to his own culture. 4. The old habits tend to interlude and interfere with the l earning, so that the student may speak L2 with the intonation of his L1 or the word order of his L1, and so on.

Oscar Wilde Constanly Mocks Victorian Society Essay Example for Free

Oscar Wilde Constanly Mocks Victorian Society EssayAct III offers happy annunciation to the problems of identity and wedlock that drive much of the humor in the previous acts. Wilde continues to mock the social customs and attitudes of the aristocratic class. He relentlessly attacks their values, views on wedding ceremony and respectability, sexual attitudes, and concern for stability in the social structure. Wilde attacks social behavior with the continuation of destinationes by his characters that argon the opposite of their actions. While Cecily and Gwendolen agree to keep a dignified silence, Gwendolen actually states that they will not be the first unitarys to verbalise to the men. In the very next line she says, Mr. Wor liaison, I have something very position to ask you. Wilde seems to be saying that people speak as if they have strong opinions, but their actions do not support their words. If actions truly do speak louder than words, Wilde has make his point Societ y, literally, speaks volumes, but the words are meaningless. Wilde continues his criticism of societys valuing style over substance when Gwendolen says, In matters of grave importance, style, not sincerity is the vital thing. lady Bracknell discusses Algernons marriage assets in the same light. She says, Algernon is an extremely, I may al well-nigh say an ostentatiously, eligible young man. He has nothing, but he looks everything. What to a greater extent tidy sum one desire?Indeed, in a society where looks are everything and substance is discounted, Algernon is the perfect husband. What else do aristocrats value? They seem to esteem the appearance of respectability. Respectability means children are born within the context of marriage. Wilde once again mocks the hypocrisy of the aristocrats who appear to value monogamy but pretend not to notice affairs. Jacks speech to Miss Prism, whom he believes to be his m different, is humorous in both its indignant defense of marriage and al so its mocking of the loudly touted religious reformers virtues of repentance and clearness.He says to Miss Prism, Unmarried I do not deny that is a serious blow. Mother, I forgive you. His words are all the more humorous when Miss Prism indignantly denies being his mother. It was not at all unusual for aristocrats to have children born out of wedlock, but society glowering its head, pretended not to crawl in around those children, and did not condemn their fathers. The gulf between the upper class and its servants is explored in the scenes with Merriman and Prism. When Lady Bracknell unexpectedly shows up at Jacks, Merriman coughs discretely to warn the couples of her arrival. One can only imagine his humorous thoughts as he watches the wealthy tiptoe around each other and argue about what should be important.When Lady Bracknell hears the description of Prism and recognizes her as their former nanny, she calls for Miss Prism by shouting Prism without using a title in front of her name. Imperiously, Lady Bracknell divides the servant from the lady of the manor. Wildes audience would recognize this behavior on the part of the servants and the upper class. The stuffy class distinctions defined the society in which they lived. In an age of social registers, Lady Bracknell laments that even the Court Guides have errors. In the next breath, she discusses bribing Gwendolens maid to find out what is happening in her daughters life.In Act III she also reveals that her aristocratic brothers family entrusted their most precious possession Jack to a woman who is more interested in her handbag and multiple sclerosis than in what happens to the baby in her charge. Wilde seems to be questioning the values of a society that believes in social registers, hires other people to neglectfully watch its children, and uses grafting to keep track of the children who are not missing. The death of Bunbury gives Wilde the opportunity to speak of aristocratic fears and have some continued fun with the upper classs lack of ruth about death.The 1885 Trafalgar Square riots brought on ruling-class fears of insurrection, anarchism and socialism. Wilde humorously touches on these fears when he allows Algernon to explain the explosion of Bunbury. Lady Bracknell, fearing the worst, exclaims, Was he the victim of a revolutionary loss? I was not aware that Mr. Bunbury was interested in social legislation. If so, he is well punished for his morbidity. Evidently, to Lady Bracknells acquaintances, laws that protect the welfare of those less fortunate are strictly morbid subjects. In fact, this attitude seems to contradict the upper-class concern for reform.However, in reality, Wilde is confirming the upper-class definition of social reform conforming to the locating quo. In Act III Wilde makes a comment on the value of being homophile(prenominal) with a veiled reference to Lady Lancing. When Lady Bracknell asserts that Cecily need to have a more sophisticated hairs tyle, she recommends a thoroughly experienced French maid who can make a great deal of agitate in a very short time. She explains that such a change happened to an acquaintance of hers, Lady Lancing, and that after three months her own husband did not know her.Jack uses the opportunity to make a pun on the word know, using it in an aside a comment only the audience can hear. Jack interprets know to mean they no longer had sex, insinuating Lady Lancings preference for the French maid. He says, And after six months nobody knew her, indicating that the homosexual experience made a new woman of her. Although homosexuality would have been seen as immoral to Wildes audience, Jack indicates that being homosexual might be a good thing almost as a social commentary directly to the audience. It seems a double life is necessary after one is married, whether it be bunburying or the homosexual life Wilde was experiencing in an increasingly public way.Wilde continues his assault on family lif e in Act III by mentioning its strange qualities in several conversations. It appears lovable of strange, for example, that Lady Bracknell cannot even recall the Christian name of her brother-in-law, Algys father. Algernons father died before Algernon was one, so stranger yet is Algernons comment, We were never even on speaking terms. He gives that as the reason he cannot remember his fathers name. Further assaulting family life, Wilde has Lady Bracknell describe Lord Moncrieff as eccentric but excuses his behavior because it was the result of the Indian climate, and marriage, and indigestions, and other things of that kind. Marriage is lumped in concert with things such as indigestion.In explaining Lord Moncrieffs marriage, Lady Bracknell says that he was essentially a man of peace, except in his domestic life. Her description invites suspicion that the local constabulary might have visited because of domestic disturbances. Family life and domestic bliss do not get high marks in Wildes estimation. When Miss Prism humorously resolves the problem of Jacks lineage, Wilde takes his hero of unknown origins and paints him as the aristocrat who will now be assimilated into his rightful place in the social structure.Through the sad melodrama of Jacks handbag parentage, Wilde exaggerates the Victorian clich of the poor foundling who makes good. As soon as Jack is known to be a member of the established aristocracy, a Moncrieff in fact, he is seen as an appropriate person for Gwendolen to marry. They will, according to Wilde, live happily ever after in given bliss and continue the aristocratic blindness to anything that truly matters. The tag line of the play, spoken by Jack, is a familiar convention in Victorian farces. In discovering that he has been telling the truth all along his name is Ernest, and he has a brother Jack makes fun of the Victorian virtues of sincerity and honesty and asks Gwendolen to forgive him for speaking nothing but the truth.He now reali zes the importance of being the person he is supposed to be. Wilde is saying perhaps that a new kind of earnestness exists, one that is different from the virtues extolled by the Victorians. Maybe it is possible to be honest and understand what should be taken seriously in life sooner than being deceptive, hypocritical, and superficial. Some readers believe, however, that the ending shows Jack mockingly redefining Victorian earnestness as just the opposite a life of lies, pleasure and beauty. Critics debate the version of the last line. A curious stage direction occurs in Act III, revealing the concern Wilde had for the staging of his play to compliment his ideas.As his couples come together and move apart, he emphasizes the choreography of the pairs. He has them speak in unison, both the women together and the men together. It matters not who they are they are interchangeable. Marriage is simply an world that is a gesture, like a christening. The unison speaking is very stylistic , not meant to be realistic at all. It reveals Wildes attitude that what is important in Victorian marriage names really should not be as important as other considerations.In the end, Wilde leaves his audience thinking about the trivial social conventions they regard important. Their Victorian virtues perhaps need redefining. Institutions such as marriage, religion, family values and money should perhaps have new interpretations. The character of people, rather than their names and family fortunes, should weigh most heavily when considering their worth. Wilde was able to use humor to skewer these attitudes and convince his audience about the importance of being earnest.

Machiavelli And Friedrich | A comparison

Machiavelli And Friedrich A comparisonIt is interesting to note that Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) and Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) sh are a great deal of similarity, so that in fact, both fix at one time been referred by the clergy of their times as the herald of the antichrist. Nevertheless, the similarity that exists between the two is mainly underpinned by their philosophical standpoints, given that Machiavellis and Nietzsches philosophical postulations were characterized by their antithetical standpoints towards Christian values, ethics and doctrines.Particularly, a case in point is Machiavellis maxim that the end justifies the means. In his II Principe, Machiavelli sees man as a governmental animal, but not because of mans gregarious tendencies as seen by Aristotle. To Machiavelli, man is a political animal in that in the quest for power, he has to act fleetly and be very cunning. Therefore, this brings in the concepts of competition which ensures that only those who a re really determined and enthusiastic on whatever they are doing are able to continue up with the stiff competition. The divergence between Machiavelli and Christianity is further widened when he maintains that to seize and consolidate political power, it is necessary for the prince to move faster than his real and perceived enemies and lash them. The rationale behind this standpoint is that the person who moves fast and first emerges the victor, whereas the slow paced are victims (Machiavelli, 175).The similarity between the above standpoint and Nietzsches ideas is that both advocate against Christian ethics such as modesty and justice. Similarly, both disagree with the very fundamentals of Christian ethic as they both see man as an animal, whereas Christianity sees man as the most master(prenominal) being, with this importance being underpinned by rationality and morality. Therefore, the concept of seeing human race being an key being they are regarded as civilized and are no t intended to act like animals such as being not thoughtful. The main difference between human beings and animals is that human beings have conscious and are able to think and reason out in whatever they do unlike animals. Nevertheless, Nietzsches animal instincts of man is covertly mentioned, as he only refers to it, by critiquing Christianity for shutting its doors on pleasure, self, the natural and appetitive elements of man.In so assuming their controversial standpoints, both Machiavelli and Nietzsche postulate that the invite to act towards self preservation, self actualization and self aggrandizement is paramount. This relegates man into likeness with the animal kingdom, given that the animal kingdom is merely gross outn by the collect for self preservation, through instincts. As it were, the place for rationality in lieu of pure pleasure and self seeking is not given a big berth by both Nietzsche and Machiavelli. This is well proven by the fact that Machiavelli casts asper sion on the importance of values such as presumption and mutual respect or agreement. Machiavelli argues that after fatally closing in on political enemies, the Prince must later on turn to his friends and eliminate them, since friends as confidants will have accrued a lot of political and administrative secrets adequate to turn against the Prince.However, it is important to take note of the fact that Nietzsche and Machiavelli had somewhat disparate reasons for assuming their controversial standpoints. While Nietzsche maintained his standpoint on the account that he saw Christianity a curse and God as being gone non-existent as the basis of his standpoint, Machiavellis concern was not concerned with atheism, theism or the concern over the existence of a deity. Machiavelli did not write his radical standpoint for the involvement of dethroning Christianity, unlike Nietzsche.In respect to the above development, as a matter of fact, by conjoining ethics to Christianity, and criticiz ing Christianity for its moralist stands and its shunning of pleasure, debauchery and self seeking, Nietzsche basically make a dereliction on the importance of ethics and morality as important constructs that hold the society together. It is at the same time, this juncture that Machiavelli and Nietzsche part ways, as far as their philosophical standpoints are concerned.Despite his radical political standpoints Machiavelli sees the need for tampering political administration and rule with some elements of ethics. This standpoint is seen explicitly when Machiavelli urges the Prince to always make sure that he did not amass wealth and affluence by rapine. Similarly, Machiavelli argued that in order that the Prince pulls a peaceful and stable administration, it is important that he stayed away from mens women and wives. To Machiavelli, the failure to steer clear of mens wives and the failure to shun the temptation of wealth acquisition through larceny are the very factors that would dr ive men into vengeful tendencies and thereby sparking off a political resistance, and subsequently, instability. To any one analyst or careful reader, this is indeed a moralist standpoint. So moralist it is that many a world leader has not been able to keep. This is not the case with Nietzsche.In almost the same vein, Machiavelli does not see faith as being retrogressive or disposable to the domains under the Prince. As a matter of fact, Machiavelli reiterates to the need by the Prince, to desist from interfering with the Church and spiritual matters. To Machiavelli, the failure to do so would warrant the loathing by the masses. As a corollary to this standpoint, Machiavelli advised the Prince on the need to acquaint himself with the clergy, so as to be able to rule effectively. However, it must be remembered that Machiavelli advised the Prince on the need to ensure that the Church remained under the control of the state, since the Church existed under the auspices of his domains, and the Prince ought to go the developments taking place within his jurisdiction.On the other hand, Nietzsche in his condescending criticism against the Christian religion or faith, becomes blinded to the point of disposing off, any need for morality, ethics and self restraint. To him, the fact that God is dead has given man the liberty to indulge himself. This is the fatal mistake of Nietzsches works (Nietzsche and Mencken, 139).ConclusionThere is no civilization that can exist in the imperative absence of ethics. In the same vein, it is not tenable, the idea of governance and administration of a people who have a totally laissez faire condition to do as they please. The veracity of this concept is well established by the law which seeks to control and ward off the excesses of man. Nietzsche fails to realize that removing the concept of absolute authority to which all are accountable is to issue a blank check on mans actions. On the other hand, handing man absolute rights will m ake life intractable, given that in seeking to exercise these absolute rights, the rights of others and the authority of the state to exercise its powers will have been compromised. In summation, it is important to realize that the main difference that lay in Machiavellis and Nietzsches works was that of purpose. While Machiavelli only sought to advise the Prince on the technicalities of politics, Nietzsche mainly sought to produce an atheistic treatise.

Characteristics And Features Of Capital Markets Finance Essay

Characteristics And Features Of Capital Markets Finance EssayCapital mart in any pastoral consists of equity and the debt markets. Within the debt market in that location argon govt securities and the unified bond market. For mystifying countries, a liquid corporate bond market gage play a critical role in supporting economic development asIt supplements the banking system to meet corporate sector requirements for long-term capital investment and asset creation.It provides a stable ancestor of finance when the equity market is volatile.A well structures corporate bond market can have implications on monetary policy of a country as bond markets can provide relevant information about risks to price stabilityDespite rapidly transforming financial sector and a luxuriant growing economy Indias corporate bond market remains under genuine. It is still dominated by the plain vanilla bank loans and govt securities. The dominance of equities and banking system can be gauged from the fac t that since 1996, Indias stock market capitalisation as a percentage of GDP has increased to 108% from 32.1%, while the banking sectors ratio to GDP has risen from 46.3% to 78.2% in 2008. In contrast, the bond markets grew to a modest 43.4 percent of GDP from 21.3 percent. Of this corporate bonds account for around 3.2% of GDP and organisation bond market accounts for 38.3% of GDP. (Graph1)Graph1Source run batted inIndias government bond market stands ahead of most East-Asian emerging markets but most of it is used as a source of financing the deficit. The size of the Indian corporate debt market is very small in comparison with not only developed markets, but in any case some of the emerging market economies in Asia such as Malaysia, Thailand and China (Graph 2)Graph 2Source RBICharacteristics and featuresInnovation and a Plethora of optionsOver time great innovations have been witnessed in the corporate bond issuances, like floating rate instruments, convertible bonds, callable (put-able) bonds, zero coupon bonds and step-redemption bonds. This has brought a variety that caters to a wider customer base and helps them curb strike a risk-return balance.Preference for private placementIn India, issuers tend to prefer Private Placement over public issue as against ground forces where majority of corporate bonds are publically issued.In India while private placement grew 6.23 times to Rs. 62461.80 crores in 2000-01 since 1995-96, the corresponding increase in public issues of debt has been provided 40.95 percent from the 1995-96 levels. (graph 3).This leads to a crunch in market liquidity. A descend of factors are responsible for such preference. First, the companies can avoid the lengthy issuance mathematical function for public issues. Second is the low cost of private placement. Third, the amounts that can be raised through private placements are typically larger. Fourth, the structure of debt can be negotiated according to the needs of the issuer. Fin ally, a corporate can expect to raise debt from the market at finer rates than the PLR of banks and financial institutions only with an AAA rated paper. This limits the number of entities that would find it profitable to enter the market directly. Even though the listing of privately placed bonds has been made mandatory, a proper screening mechanism is missing to take care of the quality and enhancer issues of private placement deals.Graph 3 Resource mobilization through debtSource Equity and corporate debt story RBIGraph 4Source RBIDominance of financial institutionsThe public issues market has over the years been dominated by financial institutions. The issuers who are the main participants in other corporate bond markets (that is, private sector, non-financial), represent only a small proportion of the corporate debt issues in the Indian market. most of the privately placed bonds (which are about 90% of the total issue of corporate bonds) are issued by the financial and the pu blic sector. (Graph 4)Inefficient secondary marketFurther the secondary market for non-sovereign debt, especially corporate paper still remains plagued by inefficiencies. The primary problem is the total lack of market fashioning in these securities, which consequently leads to poor liquidity. The biggest investors in this segment of the market, namely LIC, UTI prefer to apply these instruments to maturity, thereby holding the supply of paper in the market.The listed corporate bonds also trade on the Wholesale Debt Segment of NSE. But the percentage of the bonds trading on the exchange is small. Number of trades in debt compared to equity on average for howling(a) 2007 is just 0.003%.Graph 5Figures are turnover on the wholesale debt market segment of NSE.Source NSEChallenges and issuesDominance of private placementsDominance of large corporations. The reference rating system encourages only the large corporations with an AAA rating. (Table 1)Non-existent repo market for corporat e bonds unlike the government bonds where there is an active repo market.Complicated and slow issuance procedure.Regulators in India are reactive rather than proactive.Illiquid secondary market- part of it is delinquent to the fact that the number of issuers is low and part of it is due to the fact that the large investors prefer to hold these securities till maturity.Lack of formal market makersLimited demand for bond financing. The corporate debt market in India continues to be dominated by banksLimited investor base. A successful corporate bond market requires non banking investors which are limited and restricted in case of India.Inadequate credit assessment skills coupled with lack of transparency in tradesThere is a lot of confusion in the market regarding both regulations and the trading floors.To sum up, corporate bond the market in India suffers from deficiencies of participants, products and a comprehensive institutional framework.Table 1 Distribution of corporate bond is sues by credit ratingsRecent developmentsGiven the importance of a well developed corporate bond market, the government, the RBI and SEBI have initiated measure to develop the corporate bond market in India. Most measures were aimed at improving the disclosure norms. The corporate bond market got its due attention by the government in the Union Budget of 2004-05where in the HighLevel Expert Committee on Corporate Bonds andSecuritisation, chaired by Dr. R. H. Patil, was set up to look into the regulatory, legal, tax and mortgage design issues for the development of the corporate bond markets. The suggestions made by the committee were to develop the market infrastructure. Some of the suggestions made in the report include the removing the stamp indebtedness, simplifying the issuance and disclosure norms, to bring the cost of corporate bonds at par with those of government securities by having similar TDS norms, enhance the investor base by encouraging exponentiation of mutual funds , pension funds, insurance companies and gratuity funds and also retail participation through better primary and secondary markets. It also suggested a regulatory framework for a transparent and efficient secondary market for corporate bonds should be put in place by SEBI in a phased manner. It also recommended having a trade reporting system, introduction of repo in corporate bonds and better clear and law of closure system.Both RBI and SEBI have fundamentally agreed to these recommendations and steps are being taken to implement the same. Some of the steps includeDematerialization of holdings, as required by SEBI since 2002 increased trading transparency from compulsory reporting of trades, linking local rating agencies to international rating agencies. In January 2007 SEBI was declared as the touch on body responsible for regulating and coordinating the primary and secondary corporate bond market. It was a major step in remove the lack of coordination that existed due to two r egulators (SEBI and RBI). In April 2007, SEBI permitted both BSE and NSE to set up trading platforms. In April 2007, SEBI reduced the shut period in corporate bonds, to align it with that relevant for Government Securities, and tradable lots in corporate bonds. In December 2007 SEBI made nurture amendments in issuance procedures to reduce the cost and ease issuance. It also gave greenish signal to FMMIDA to start trade reporting platform for CBs. Moreover, the government has made changes in the Companies Act and on simplification and reduction in the stamp duty w.e.f. 2007. From December 1, 2009 all corporate bonds traded OTC or on the debt segment of the stock exchanges will have to be cleared and settled through the theme Securities Clearing Corporation Ltd (NSCCL) or the Indian Clearing Corporation Ltd (ICCL). It will help in eliminating the counter party risk in trade settlement and ensure a smooth receipt and payment system. In June 2008, the investment limit for FIIs in cor porate debt was increased from $1.5 billion to $3 billion and further to $15 billion in January 2009. Ministry of Finance has hinted towards corporate market becoming Repo-able from 2010.Asia Bond Monitor- ADB, April 2008Indias Bond Market-Development and Challenges Ahead, Stephen Wells and Lotte Schou-Zibell, Working paper series on regional economic integration no.22, ADB, December 2008.CS Update, august 2008, ICSIEquity and corporate debt report 2007, RBINSE

Seven Eleven Japan Supply Chain

septet Eleven Japan Supply Chain found in 1973, Seven-Eleven Japan open its first repositing in Koto-ku, Tokyo, in May 1974. In 2004 it was owned by the Ito-yokado group, which also managed a chain of extremely marts in japan and owned a majority shargon in southland, the company managing seven- xi in the United States. Seven-Eleven Japan realized a phenomenal offset between the years of 1985 to 2003. The Competitive strategy of Seven Eleven Japan is to go away High-availability of a variety of reasonable products at reasonable prices. The total of the visits payoff per year for all the Japanese populate is around 35 times, that means each Japanese go on average 3 times a month to a Seven Eleven Outlet. When it started in Japan the new concept of this chisel in was incredibly famous, everybody liked the concept of Seven Eleven.The whatchamacallum store cut chain tail be responsive if they focus on what the client wants. 7- cardinal knows who is buying which product and at what time, it knows it because the transcription is really efficient. For each customer the cashier pushes a button with the approximate age, and the cash register the time and the pattern of product that the client just bought. Now the system knows who, where and what is sold at any time of the day, the supply chain can be really responsive and offer the good where it is wished. The first online network was established in 1979, so it proves 7-eleven Japan was in front of all others about technologies and supply chain management. Of build they take most risks doing this, because the population can be bored or move. 7-eleven has to be careful about the needs every day, and has to react really quickly to all kind of problems they have to face up. In japan, 7 eleven adopts a strategic fit with the customers they attempt to know what they need, where they need it and when they need it. Every single person is significant in statistics for them they really care on the demand. The m ain risk for them is the potentially high cost concerning the transportation. I think when you are a huge industry like 7-eleven in Japan, more than 12000 retailers you shift focus on every single person. Be the biggest company of outlet stores include that you cannot have a micro supply chain. The biggest risk is that you cant follow the demand, you will be able at the beginning, but after a few time in the market the demand will capture huge. It is too much work and if you cant follow, the customers will go to another retailer. 7-eleven must be able to manage with uncertainty. In order to support its supply chain seven-eleven started to remodel the transportation in their supply chain. The number of trucks was really high, and they could use fewer trucks to do all the transportation work. They have different kind of trucks for different kind of goods (frozen food, warm food ). The supply chain worked hard every day to find a way to optimize the facilities, and it worked. Now the store order in the morning and receive in the afternoon, everything is really flexible. The location of the store is based on where the demand is, so they are not expression to open an outlet everywhere, but where people need it and where they will sell more products. They want to optimize the space where they are located. In less than 10 years they did a lot of progress in technologies, and more in inventory management. Now everything can be controlled on computers, and they know what they need. They work with some companies in order to have the best infrastructure. All the stocks depend on local customer demand, each stores have a different stock. Seven-eleven does not bear direct store delivery in Japan but has all products flow through its distribution center. One distribution center works with 50 to 60 retailers, so each store doesnt have to keep in a huge amount of goods that they dont sell. For some years they know what is sold in which store, so its easy for them to know which items each store needs. Direct store delivery is more appropriate when the store knows it will sell the product in a short period of time. It also is more appropriate when the store wants the good really quickly, because the customers dont want to wait too much when they really need something. Seven-eleven is known to sell and have almost everything you need, so it is better not to let shelves empty, it is also not good for the trade reputation if people can see empty space in the store. We can say that all these shelves crowded of stuffs show that the supply chain is really well manage.Seven eleven used the claim system in Japan of course it is much easier to franchise the store because if you have too many stores you cannot handle everything. This system counts everyplace 68 percent of the revenue from operations. It supported Seven Eleven stores to have a high-density market presence. Using the franchise system, Seven Eleven got six advantages of the market dominance stra tegy. First, it boosted the distribution efficiency because they opened more retailers, so the distribution center could be closer from an important amount of stores. Second, Improved brand awareness, of course more store you have and more famous you will be, so people finding seven eleven stores everywhere thought it was secure and a good brand. Third, outgrowthd system efficiency, if we have a lot of people working on the system and using it, of course it increases the efficiency. Fourth, enhanced efficiency of franchise support services, in the market dominance the number of stores is really important, so more you are in and faster your support services increase. Fifth, Improvement of the ad effectiveness, in Japan in some places we can find a lot of seven eleven, that means there is a lot of advertising because people are using them to buy anything. Sixth, Prevent competitors entrance into the dominant area, managers instead of opening their own retail store, they use the seve n eleven franchise system because it is much easier to start and to be in the dominant area at the beginning. As we can see now the franchise system is really important for seven eleven Japan, the system is pretty simple. Both parts, the franchise owner and seven eleven Japan, have responsibilities. First the owners have to manage the store and the staff, imprint orders and maintain the store appearance. In another side Seven eleven Japan manages almost everything in developing the store, orders and accounting. Seven eleven also provide advertising and pay 80 percent of the utility cost. Seven eleven had more than 12000 stores in Japan. In 2004 the size of the regular store increase from 125 to 150 square meters. The total size of all the seven eleven stores in Japan is about 1530 square kilometers, it means almost 15 times the Paris size. It is huge for a country small like Japan. Seven Eleven Chain offers more and more services every year, besides products. They gradually added a variety of services that customers could obtain at its stores. They started offering other services in 1987 the system was offering you to have to possibleness to pay your Tokyo Electric Power bills. Later the people could pay other bills, like gas, insurance, and telephone. This service attracted millions of additional customers every year. Another example that is in 1995 they started to accept payment for mail order purchases. Another huge service that they offer is to have an cash dispenser in the shop they started offering this in 2004. The ATM project was huge, because they started to install in 75 percent of the retailers, with the goal to achieve 100 percent ATM installation. The 7-dream concept arrives at the right time, because in 2000 the net income is starting to be well used by customers. In Japan people work a lot and really hard, so sometimes that graspable they like to shop on internet, choose what they want and pick it up at their convenience store. The 7-dream concept is really useful, but the delivery system is presumable more successful in a country like the United States, where people love to have the product directly deliver at their homes.Seven eleven in the United States it is the second largest market in the world for seven eleven. Even if at the beginning several 7-eleven were shut down. The number of retail stores grown after 1998, because the distribution structure was completely different from the Japanese system. In fact in the USA we can see that DSD (direct store delivery) are pretty common, it was awkward to see that in Japan. The refreshful products obliged 7-eleven to use CDCs (Combined distribution centers), because it was super important to be able to deliver real fresh products like sandwiches, bakery, and bread in time to the stores. At this time Seven Eleven tried to introduce a new concept in the convenience store system, they wanted to be different than a normal gas station.

Art And Mathematics:Escher And Tessellations Essay -- Math Artistic Pa

Art And mathematicsematicsEscher And Tessellations On first thought, mathematics and art seem to be totally pivotal fields of study with absolutely no connections. However, after careful consideration, the great degree of relation between these two subjects is amazing. Mathematics is the central ingredient in many artworks. Through the exploration of many artists and their works, common mathematical themes can be discovered. For instance, the art of tessellations, or tilings, relies on geometry. M.C. Escher used his knowledge of geometry, and mathematics in general, to create his tessellations, some of his most well admired works. It is well known that in the past, Renaissance artists received their training in an atmosphere of artists and mathematicians studying and discipline together (Emmer 2). People also suggest that the art of the future will depend on modernistic technologies, computer graphics in particular (Emmer 1). on that point are many m athematical advantages to using computer graphics. They can help to visualize phenomena and to understand how to solve new problems (Emmer 2). The use of visual computers gives rise to new challenges for mathematicians. At the same time, computer graphics might in the future be the unifying language between art and science (Emmer 3). However, one must remember that art is by no means the same as mathematics. It employs virtually none of the resources implicit in the term pure mathematics. Many passel object that art has nothing to do with mathematics that mathematics is unemotional and injurious to art, which is purely a matter of feeling. In The Introduction to the ocular beware Art and Mathematics, Max Bill refutes this argument by stati... ...d Mathematics. Ed. Michele Emmer. Cambridge MIT Press. 5-9.Emmer, Michele. Intoduction to the Visual MindArt and Mathematics. The Visual Mind Art and Mathematics. Ed. Michele Emmer. Cambridge MIT Press. 1-3.Escher, M.C. Escher on Escher- Exploring the Infinite. New York Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1986.whattess.html.Math Forum What is a Tessellation? Available Online.http//forum.swarthmore.edu/sum95/suzanne/whattess.html.Accessed 10/5/99.Maurits Cornelius Escher. Available Online. http//www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/Mathematicians/Escher.html. Accessed 10/16/99.M.C. Escher- Interlocking Shapes and Tessellations. Available Online. http//www.znet.com/wchow/escher.htm. Accessed 10/7/99.Schattschneider, Doris. The Fascination of Tiling. The Visual Mind Art and Mathematics. Ed. Michele Emmer. Cambridge MIT Press. 157-164.

Racism in in Toni Morrisons The Bluest Eye Essay -- Bluest Eye Essays

Both Toni Morrisons novel about(predicate) an African American family in Ohio during the 1930s and 1940s, The Bluest Eye and Louise Erdrichs novel about the Anishinabe tribe in the 1920s in North Dakota, Tracks are, in part, about seeing.  Both novels experience the effects of a kind of seeing that is refracted through the electron lens of racism by subjects of racism themselves.  Erdrichs Pauline Puyat and Morrisons Pecola Breedlove are crazy from their dealings with racism and themselves become from an internalized racism that is upheld and maintained by social and cultural structures inside which they live.  Pauline and Pecola become the embodiment of world sickness, of social pathologies as they become increasingly alienate from their bodies. Pecola, driven to want blueing eyes by her observations that is is those with blue who receive and thus deserve love, eventually loses her mind after she experiences repeated violence at home, at school, and on the street .  These violences are all rooted in racism.  Pecola begins to believe the lie of racism that to be black... Racism in in Toni Morrisons The Bluest Eye Essay -- Bluest Eye Essays Both Toni Morrisons novel about an African American family in Ohio during the 1930s and 1940s, The Bluest Eye and Louise Erdrichs novel about the Anishinabe tribe in the 1920s in North Dakota, Tracks are, in part, about seeing.  Both novels examine the effects of a kind of seeing that is refracted through the lens of racism by subjects of racism themselves.  Erdrichs Pauline Puyat and Morrisons Pecola Breedlove are crazy from their dealings with racism and themselves suffer from an internalized racism that is upheld and maintained by social and cultural structures within which they live.  Pauline and Pecola become the embodiment of world sickness, of social pathologies as they become increasingly alienated from their bodies. Pecola, driven to want blue eyes by her observ ations that is is those with blue who receive and thus deserve love, eventually loses her mind after she experiences repeated violence at home, at school, and on the street.  These violences are all rooted in racism.  Pecola begins to believe the lie of racism that to be black...